前文已完成对国际工程保函的基础界定，明晰了其定义、法律属性与三大核心功能，梳理了行业发展现状与趋势，并从用途、担保责任、开立方式三个核心维度，系统划分了保函类型并剖析了各类别的适用场景与核心特点，构建起国际工程保函的基础认知体系。而跨境工程的多法域属性，决定了保函的实操落地离不开法律规则与国际惯例的双重指引，全生命周期的精细化管理更是保函发挥担保价值、规避实操风险的关键。本部分将聚焦国际工程保函适用的国内法律体系与核心国际惯例，明确二者的衔接逻辑与适用优先级，并深入拆解保函从前期准备、中期执行到后期收尾的全流程管理要点，为跨境工程保函的实操落地筑牢规则与流程基础。
The preceding text has completed the basic definition of international engineering guarantees, clarifying their definition, legal attributes and three core functions, sorting out the current development status and trends of the industry, and systematically clas
sifying the types of guarantees from three core dimensions—purpose, guarantee liability and issuance method—while analyzing the application scenarios and core characteristics of each type, thus establishing a basic cognitive system for international engineering guarantees. Given the multi-jurisdictional nature of cross-border engineering projects, the practical implementation of guarantees cannot be separated from the dual guidance of legal rules and international practices, and the refined management throughout the entire life cycle is a key factor for guarantees to exert their security value and avoid practical risks. This section will focus on the domestic legal systems and core international practices applicable to international engineering guarantees, clarify the connection logic and priority of application between the two, and deeply dissect the key points of the whole-process management of guarantees from preliminary preparation, mid-term implementation to post-completion closing, laying a solid foundation of rules and processes for the practical implementation of cross-border engineering guarantees.
三、国际工程保函的适用法律与国际惯例
(一)适用法律
国际工程保函的适用法律需兼顾各国法律规定与跨境场景特点，主要适用申请人、担保人或受益人所在国的相关国内法，例如中国《民法典》担保编、英国《1977年不公平合同条款法》等，[1]同时最高人民法院出台的相关司法解释也为我国涉国际工程保函纠纷的审理提供了明确指引。
Applicable Laws and International Practices for International Engineering Guarantees
Applicable Laws
The applicable laws for international engineering guarantees must take into account the legal provisions of various countries and the characteristics of cross-border scenarios, mainly applying the relevant domestic laws of the countries where the applicant, guarantor or beneficiary is located, such as the Security Part of the Civil Code of the People’s Republic of China, the UK Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977, etc. Relevant judicial interpretations issued by the Supreme People’s Court also provide clear guidance for the trial of disputes involving international engineering guarantees in China.
在法律适用选择上，主要遵循意思自治和最密切联系两大原则：由各方主体在保函条款中自由约定适用法律，未明确约定时则适用与保函交易联系最紧密国家的法律，通常包括保函签发地、项目所在地、担保人住所地等。由于不同国家在担保法律规定上存在差异，尤其是在独立性保函的认定、索赔条件、欺诈认定标准等方面分歧较为明显，且存在当地司法实践差异与主权豁免等关键问题，部分国家司法机关对独立性保函的认可度较低，若受益人为项目所在国政府或国有企业，还可能因主权豁免导致索赔与执行障碍，因此需重视跨境法律冲突的妥善解决，通常通过适用相关冲突规范、参考国际惯例等方式，化解法律差异带来的风险。
The choice of applicable law mainly follows two principles: party autonomy and the most significant relationship. The parties may freely agree on the applicable law in the guarantee terms; if no explicit agreement is made, the law of the country with the closest connection to the guarantee transaction shall apply, usually including the place of issuance, the project location, and the guarantor’s domicile. Due to differences in guarantee legislation among jurisdictions, especially obvious divergences in the recognition of independent guarantees, conditions for demand, and standards for fraud, as well as key issues such as local judicial practice and sovereign immunity, some courts show low recognition of independent guarantees. If the beneficiary is a government or state-owned enterprise of the host country, claim and enforcement obstacles may arise due to sovereign immunity. Therefore, proper resolution of cross-border legal conflicts should be emphasized, usually by applying relevant conflict rules and referring to international practices to mitigate risks arising from legal differences.
(二)核心国际惯例
国际工程保函领域的核心国际惯例均由国际商会制定，形成主次分明、相互补充的惯例体系，统一了跨境保函操作标准，有效化解规则认知分歧：
Core International Practices
The core international practices in the field of international engineering guarantees are formulated by the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), forming a wellstructured and complementary system that unifies crossborder guarantee operation standards and effectively resolves divergences in rule understanding:
《见索即付保函统一规则》(URDG 758)是国际工程独立性保函最核心的适用惯例，由国际商会制定，明确了保函开立、索赔、赔付、失效等全流程的核心规则，统一了各国对独立性保函的操作标准和认知，有效化解了跨境场景下独立性保函适用规则不统一的难题，是当前国际工程领域使用最广泛、最具权威性的保函惯例。
The Uniform Rules for Demand Guarantees (URDG 758) is the most authoritative practice for independent guarantees in international engineering. It clarifies core rules for the entire process of guarantee issuance, demand, payment and expiry, unifies operational standards and understandings of independent guarantees across jurisdictions, and effectively solves the problem of inconsistent application of rules for independent guarantees in crossborder scenarios. It is the most widely used and authoritative guarantee practice in the international engineering sector.
《跟单信用证统一惯例》(UCP 600)虽主要针对跟单信用证制定，但在国际工程保函领域也有补充适用空间，尤其适用于备用信用证类保函。该惯例明确了单据审核、提交规范等相关要求，为这类特殊保函的操作提供了清晰指引，填补了部分特殊类型保函的惯例适用空白。
The Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits (UCP 600), though primarily designed for documentary credits, also provides supplementary application in international engineering guarantees, especially for standby letter of credittype guarantees. It specifies requirements for document examination and presentation, offering clear guidance for such special guarantees and filling gaps in the application of practices.
《国际商会合同担保统一规则》(URCG 325)是国际工程保函领域的补充性适用惯例，其适用范围覆盖各类工程担保场景，针对投标、履约、预付款等各类保函制定了通用规范，能够适配不同类型国际工程保函的基础操作需求，与URDG 758、UCP 600相互补充，完善了国际工程保函的惯例体系。
The Uniform Rules for Contract Guarantees (URCG 325) is a supplementary practice covering various engineering guarantee scenarios. It provides general rules for tender, performance, advance payment and other guarantees, meeting basic operational needs for different types of international engineering guarantees. Together with URDG 758 and UCP 600, it completes the system of practices for international engineering guarantees.
(三)法律与国际惯例的衔接与适用优先级
国际工程保函的法律与国际惯例适用有明确优先级，可有效规避规则混乱风险，保障保函操作的合规性与一致性：
Coordination and Priority of Application between Laws and International Practices
Clear priorities apply to the use of laws and international practices for international engineering guarantees, which can effectively avoid rule confusion and ensure compliance and consistency:
首要遵循保函条款中各方明确约定的内容，无论是指定的国内法还是国际惯例，均为各方合意的体现，具有最高适用效力。条款未明确或约定不清时，优先适用 URDG 758 等权威国际惯例填补规则空白，依托国际通行规则解决实操问题。无约定且无适配惯例时，适用与保函交易联系最密切国家的国内法，同时严格兼顾各国法律强制性规定，不得违背保函签发地、项目所在地等核心区域的法律强制要求，保障保函相关操作合法合规。
First, the contents explicitly agreed by the parties in the guarantee terms, whether designated domestic law or international practice, represent the consensus of the parties and have the highest binding force. If the terms are unclear or silent, authoritative international practices such as URDG 758 shall prevail to fill gaps and resolve practical issues. In the absence of agreement and applicable practice, the domestic law of the jurisdiction with the closest connection to the guarantee transaction shall apply, while strictly complying with the mandatory provisions of the place of issue, project location and other core jurisdictions to ensure the legality and compliance of guarantee operations.
四、国际工程保函全流程管理要点
国际工程保函的管理需覆盖前期准备、中期执行、后期收尾全生命周期，各阶段均需明确核心操作要点，建立标准化、精细化的管理流程，从源头规避台账遗漏、通知延误、材料瑕疵等管理与操作风险，确保保函的有效开立、履行与收尾。
Key Points of Whole-Process Management of International Engineering Guarantees
The management of international engineering guarantees covers the entire life cycle: preliminary preparation, mid-term implementation and postcompletion. Each stage requires clear operational priorities and standardized, refined management processes to avoid management and operational risks such as missing records, delayed notifications and defective documents, ensuring the effective issuance, performance and closure of guarantees.
(一)前期准备：条款谈判与主体选择
前期准备是保障保函后续有效履行的基础，核心围绕条款谈判与主体选择展开，需精准把控条款细节，严格审核各方资质，从源头规避潜在风险。
Preliminary Preparation: Clause Negotiation and Party Selection
Preliminary preparation lays the foundation for the subsequent valid performance of guarantees, focusing on clause negotiation and party selection. It requires precise control of clause details and strict qualification review to avoid potential risks at the source.
条款谈判阶段，需重点聚焦索赔条件、担保金额、担保期限、适用法律及惯例、失效条款、抗辩权利等核心内容，精准明确各条款细节。坚决避免无条件索赔、无限期担保、模糊化索赔标准等不利条款，针对索赔条件设置明确的证据提交要求，同时明确保函修改、终止的流程与条件，确保条款公平合理且贴合工程实际需求。
In clause negotiation, key focus shall be placed on core contents including conditions for demand, guarantee amount, validity period, applicable law and practice, expiry provisions and defense rights, with clear and precise wording. Unfavorable clauses such as unconditional demand, unlimited validity and ambiguous claim standards shall be firmly avoided. Clear evidence submission requirements shall be set for claims, and procedures and conditions for amendment and termination shall be specified to ensure fairness and practicality.
主体选择环节，需严格审核申请人、担保人、受益人三方资质，其中担保人的选择需重点考量其跨境担保能力、信用评级、区域服务优势及项目所在国的认可度，筛选具备充足实力和专业服务水平的担保人;同时核查申请人的履约能力与受益人的信用状况，对信用状况不佳的受益人可要求其提供反担保，从源头规避主体资质不足引发的担保风险。
In party selection, the qualifications of the applicant, guarantor and beneficiary shall be strictly examined. For the guarantor, priority shall be given to crossborder guarantee capacity, credit rating, regional service advantages and recognition in the host country. The applicant’s performance ability and the beneficiary’s credit standing shall also be verified. For beneficiaries with poor credit, counterguarantees may be required to avoid risks arising from insufficient qualifications.
(二)中期执行：开立流程与跟踪管理
中期执行是保函有效发挥作用的关键，核心涵盖开立流程与跟踪管理两大环节，需规范开立流程，实现保函履行状态的实时监控，及时排查潜在风险。
Mid-term Implementation: Issuance Procedures and Tracking Management
Mid-term implementation is critical for the effective functioning of guarantees, covering issuance procedures and tracking management. Issuance processes shall be standardized, realtime monitoring implemented, and potential risks identified promptly.
开立流程需按规范准备资质文件、工程合同、保函申请书、项目审批文件等相关材料，确保材料真实、完整、无瑕疵，避免因材料瑕疵导致无效担保;经担保人严格审核通过后，采用线上或线下方式开立保函，送达受益人并确认无误;跨境保函还需完成相应的审批备案流程，确保开立合法合规、流程规范。
For issuance, complete and authentic documents including qualification certificates, engineering contracts, guarantee applications and project approval documents shall be prepared to avoid invalid guarantees due to defective materials. After strict examination by the guarantor, the guarantee shall be issued online or offline, delivered to the beneficiary and confirmed. Crossborder guarantees shall also complete corresponding approval and filing procedures to ensure legality and standardization.
跟踪台账管理则需建立全量、精细化的保函台账，详细记录保函类型、金额、期限、各方主体、条款要点、开立日期、备案情况等核心信息，指定专人负责台账更新与维护，杜绝台账遗漏、信息错误等问题;同时建立定期跟踪机制，实时跟踪保函履行状态与工程项目进展，及时排查潜在索赔风险，保障保函全流程可控。
For ledger management, a comprehensive and refined guarantee ledger shall be established to record type, amount, validity period, parties, key terms, issuance date and filing status. Special personnel shall be assigned to update and maintain the ledger to prevent omissions and errors. A regular tracking mechanism shall be implemented to monitor performance status and project progress, and identify potential claim risks in a timely manner.
(三)后期收尾：保函修改、索赔与失效
后期收尾是保函管理的关键收尾环节，主要围绕保函修改、索赔应对、失效注销开展，需规范操作流程，防范收尾阶段的各类风险，确保保函业务闭环管理。
Post-completion: Amendment, Claim and Expiry
Post-completion is the final stage of guarantee management, mainly involving amendment, claim handling, expiry and discharge. Standard procedures shall be followed to prevent risks and achieve closedloop management.
若工程合同发生工期、金额、履约内容等变更，需按流程推进保函条款修改，严格审核修改内容，确保修改后条款与工程实际需求一致，同时完成修改后的备案与受益人确认流程，避免因保函条款与主合同脱节引发的担保风险。
If the engineering contract is changed in terms of schedule, amount or performance scope, the guarantee terms shall be amended accordingly, with strict review to ensure consistency with actual project needs. Filing and beneficiary confirmation shall be completed to avoid risks caused by inconsistency between the guarantee and the main contract.
索赔管理环节，需明确受益人索赔的触发条件与证据提交标准，受益人提出索赔后，申请人与担保人需及时做好应对，规范收集、审核索赔证据，合理行使抗辩权利;针对业主方恶意索赔情形，需及时固定相关证据，采取针对性的抗辩策略，妥善处理索赔事宜。
In claim management, trigger conditions and evidence standards shall be clear. Upon receipt of a demand, the applicant and guarantor shall respond promptly, examine evidence in accordance with standards, and properly exercise defense rights. In case of malicious claims by the employer, relevant evidence shall be preserved and targeted defense strategies adopted.
保函失效环节，需明确期限届满、工程竣工验收、义务履行完毕等失效条件，失效后及时向担保人提交失效证明材料，办理注销流程，按规定退还保证金(如有)，并完成台账更新归档，避免因过期保函未注销引发的不必要风险;同时建立完善的通知机制，确保各方主体及时收到保函修改、索赔、失效等相关通知，规避通知延误引发的风险。
Upon expiry due to maturity, completion acceptance or full performance, expiry documents shall be submitted to the guarantor for discharge procedures, and the security deposit (if any) refunded. The ledger shall be updated and archived to avoid unnecessary risks from undischarged expired guarantees. A sound notification mechanism shall ensure timely delivery of amendments, claims and expiry notices to all parties.
五、国际工程保函的风险识别
国际工程保函面临的核心风险贯穿全生命周期，涵盖法律风险、条款风险、信用风险、管理与操作风险、跨境风险、行业差异化风险六大维度，各风险类型相互关联、相互传导，需全面、深入识别，为风险防范体系的构建奠定基础。
Risk Identification of International Engineering Guarantees
Core risks of international engineering guarantees run through the entire life cycle, covering legal risk, clause risk, credit risk, management and operational risk, cross-border risk and industry-specific risk. These interrelated and transmissible risks require comprehensive and in-depth identification to lay the foundation for risk prevention.
(一)法律风险
法律风险是国际工程保函最核心的跨境风险之一，源于各国法律体系、司法实践的差异，且涉及主权豁免等特殊法律问题，直接影响保函的效力与履行，核心包括：
Legal Risk
Legal risk is one of the most critical crossborder risks, arising from differences in legal systems and judicial practices, as well as special issues such as sovereign immunity, which directly affect the validity and performance of guarantees.
1. 跨境法律适用冲突
保函涉及签发地、项目所在地、争议解决地等多个法域，各法域在独立性保函认定、索赔条件、欺诈认定等方面的法律规定存在显著差异，若未明确约定适用法律，易引发法律适用争议。
Conflict of cross-border applicable laws
Guarantees involve multiple jurisdictions including place of issue, project location and dispute resolution venue. Significant differences exist in the recognition of independent guarantees, conditions for demand and fraud. Without clear agreement, disputes over applicable law are likely to arise.
2. 当地司法实践差异
即使约定了适用法律或国际惯例，项目所在地的司法实践仍可能影响保函执行，部分国家司法机关倾向于认定保函的从属性，突破独立性原则核查主合同履行情况，或对索赔证据的审核标准设置特殊要求，导致抗辩失败。
Differences in local judicial practice
Even with agreed law or practice, local judicial practice may affect enforcement. Some courts tend to recognize the accessory nature of guarantees, review the underlying contract despite the independence principle, or impose special standards for claim documents, leading to failed defenses.
3. 主权豁免问题
若受益人为项目所在国政府、国有企业等主权主体，可能涉及国家主权豁免原则的适用，主权主体可主张司法管辖豁免与执行豁免，导致申请人无法通过司法途径追究其违约责任，担保人赔付后也难以实现追偿。
Sovereign immunity
If the beneficiary is a sovereign entity such as a government or stateowned enterprise, sovereign immunity may apply, barring jurisdiction and enforcement. The applicant may be unable to pursue liability through judicial channels, and the guarantor may face difficulty in recourse after payment.
(二)条款风险
条款风险源于保函条款的制定与约定，是国际工程保函的基础风险，核心包括：
Clause Risk
Clause risk derives from drafting and agreement, representing a fundamental risk for international engineering guarantees.
1. 条款表述不明确
对索赔条件、担保期限、抗辩权利等核心内容表述模糊，易引发各方理解分歧，为受益人不当索赔提供可乘之机，且司法机关或仲裁机构对模糊条款的解释往往倾向于保护受益人。
Ambiguous wording
Vague expressions regarding conditions for demand, validity period and defense rights easily lead to divergent interpretations and may enable improper claims. Courts or arbitral tribunals often interpret ambiguous terms in favor of the beneficiary.
2. 存在不利条款
保函中存在无条件索赔、无限期担保、排除申请人抗辩权利等不利条款，大幅提升申请人与担保人的担保风险，申请人可能面临无合理依据的赔付要求。
Unfavorable clauses
Clauses such as unconditional demand, unlimited validity and exclusion of the applicant’s defense rights significantly increase risks for the applicant and guarantor, who may face unjustified payment demands.
3. 条款与主合同脱节
保函的担保期限、金额、履约要求等与工程主合同不一致，导致保函无法有效覆盖主合同的履约风险，失去其担保价值。
Inconsistency with the main contract
Mismatch between the guarantee and the main contract in validity period, amount or performance obligations impairs the protective function of the guarantee.
(三)信用风险
信用风险源于保函各方主体的信用状况与履约能力，核心包括：
Credit Risk
Credit risk arises from the credit standing and performance capacity of the parties.
1. 申请人违约风险
申请人因资金链断裂、技术能力不足、项目管理不善等原因，未能按主合同约定履行义务，是保函索赔的最主要触发原因，申请人违约后担保人需承担赔付责任，若申请人无偿还能力，担保人将面临资金损失。
Applicant default risk
Default by the applicant due to capital chain rupture, insufficient technical capacity or poor project management is the main trigger for claims. The guarantor must pay and may suffer loss if the applicant cannot repay.
2. 担保人履约风险
部分担保人因资质不足、资金实力薄弱、跨境服务能力欠缺等原因，在受益人提出合法索赔时无力承担赔付责任，导致受益人的权益受损，引发多方争议。
Guarantor performance risk
Weakly qualified or undercapitalized guarantors may fail to pay upon legitimate claims, harming the beneficiary and triggering multiparty disputes.
3. 受益人恶意索赔风险
受益人在无合法索赔依据的情况下，利用保函的独立性原则，以单方书面声明、虚假证据等方式提出索赔，意图获取不当利益，且独立性保函的单据化要求导致此类索赔的抗辩难度较大。
Beneficiary’s malicious claim risk
The beneficiary may abuse the independence principle to make unfounded demands using unilateral statements or false documents. The documentary nature of independent guarantees makes defense difficult.
(四)管理与操作风险
管理与操作风险贯穿保函全生命周期，源于管理流程不规范、操作行为不标准，是最易被忽视但发生率较高的风险类型，核心包括：
Management and Operational Risk
Management and operational risks run through the entire life cycle, arising from non-standard processes and misconduct. They are easily overlooked but highly frequent.
1. 台账管理风险
未建立标准化保函台账，或台账更新不及时、信息记录错误、台账遗漏，导致保函期限、金额等核心信息无法实时监控，易引发保函过期未注销、保证金未退还等问题。
Ledger management risk
Lack of a standardized ledger, delayed updates, errors or omissions result in failure to monitor validity and amount, leading to undischarged guarantees and unrefunded deposits.
2. 通知与沟通风险
工程合同变更、受益人索赔、保函失效等关键信息的通知延误、沟通不畅，导致相关主体无法及时采取应对措施，错失抗辩、止损的最佳时机。
Notification and communication risk
Delayed or poor communication of contract changes, claims and expiry causes missed opportunities for defense and loss mitigation.
3. 材料瑕疵风险
在保函开立、备案、索赔等环节，提交的材料存在真实性、完整性、形式性瑕疵，如资质文件过期、合同复印件无盖章、索赔材料缺失关键信息等，导致保函开立无效、备案失败、索赔被驳回等问题。
Document defect risk
Defects in authenticity, completeness or formality in documents for issuance, filing or claims result in invalid guarantees, failed filing or rejected demands.
4. 流程操作风险
未按保函条款或监管要求执行操作流程，如保函修改未完成受益人确认、跨境保函未备案、失效未按流程注销等，导致操作行为的法律效力存疑，引发各方争议。
Procedural risk
Noncompliance with terms or regulatory requirements, such as unconfirmed amendments, unfiled crossborder guarantees or undischarged expired guarantees, casts doubt on legal validity and triggers disputes.
(五)跨境风险
跨境风险源于国际工程的跨境属性，受项目所在国政治、经济、政策等因素影响，核心包括：
Cross-border Risk
Cross-border risk stems from the crossborder nature of international projects, affected by political, economic and policy factors.
1. 汇率波动风险
跨境工程的结算货币与担保人的本币存在汇率差异，汇率大幅波动可能导致担保金额与实际损失不匹配，担保人赔付时面临汇率损失。
Exchange rate fluctuation risk
Large exchange rate movements between the settlement currency and the guarantor’s local currency may mismatch the guarantee amount and actual loss, causing exchange losses upon payment.
2. 跨境监管政策调整
项目所在国或担保人所在国调整跨境担保监管政策，如收紧保函审批、增加备案要求等，导致保函开立、履行流程受阻，影响保函的正常效力。
Changes in crossborder regulatory policies
Tightened approval or increased filing requirements in the host or home country disrupt issuance and performance.
3. 政治与地缘风险
项目所在国发生政治动荡、战争、外交关系恶化等情况，导致工程项目停工、合同无法履行，引发保函索赔，且此类情况可能导致跨境资金流动受限，担保人赔付难度加大。
Political and geopolitical risk
Political unrest, war or deteriorated diplomatic relations suspend projects, trigger claims and restrict crossborder fund flows, increasing payment difficulty.
(六)行业差异化风险
不同行业的国际工程具有项目特点、履约要求、监管标准等方面的显著差异，对保函的类型、条款、担保金额等要求也存在个性化需求，若采用同质化的保函管理策略，将引发行业差异化风险，核心涉及基建、能源、化工三大主流行业：
Industry-specific Risk
Different industries have distinct project features, performance requirements and regulatory standards, requiring tailored guarantees. A one-size-fits-all approach causes industryspecific risks, mainly in infrastructure, energy and chemical engineering.
1. 基建工程风险
基建工程(铁路、公路、桥梁等)具有周期长、投资规模大、涉及当地民生、多与政府主体合作的特点，保函担保期限长、金额高，核心风险为工期延误、预付款挪用、质量保修的长期担保风险，且易引发主权豁免、当地司法实践差异等法律风险。
Infrastructure risk
Long duration, large investment, close relation to public welfare and cooperation with government entities lead to longterm and highvalue guarantees. Key risks include delay, misappropriation of advance payments, longterm quality warranty, sovereign immunity and local judicial divergence.
2. 能源工程风险
能源工程(光伏、风电、油气开发等)具有技术要求高、设备采购占比大、跨境供应链复杂、项目所在地多为发展中国家的特点，核心风险为设备质量引发的质量保函索赔、跨境付款延误引发的付款保函风险、项目所在地政治不稳定导致的履约风险，且受国际能源政策、汇率波动影响较大。
Energy risk
High technical requirements, large equipment procurement, complex crossborder supply chains and locations often in developing countries lead to quality claims, payment delays and performance risks, heavily affected by energy policies and exchange rates.
3. 化工工程风险
化工工程(石化厂、化工厂等)具有安全标准高、环保要求严格、施工工艺复杂、事故风险高的特点，核心风险为安全事故、环保违规引发的履约保函索赔，且项目所在地对环保、安全的司法实践差异大，易引发当地司法机关对索赔的倾向性认定。
Chemical engineering risk
High safety and environmental standards, complex construction and high accident risk trigger performance claims. Divergent local judicial practices on environment and safety tend to favor beneficiaries.
参考文献
一、中国国内法、司法解释等文件：
[1]《中华人民共和国民法典》(担保编)
[2]最高人民法院《关于审理独立保函纠纷案件若干问题的规定》(法释〔2016〕24号)
[3]最高人民法院指导案例109号：安徽省外经建设(集团)有限公司诉东方置业房地产有限公司保函欺诈纠纷案(2017)最高法民再134号
二、域外法律：
[4]英国《Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977》(1977年不公平合同条款法)
三、国际商事惯例：
[5]国际商会《见索即付保函统一规则》(URDG 758)
[6]国际商会《跟单信用证统一惯例》(UCP 600)
[7]国际商会《合同担保统一规则》(URCG 325)
四、网络资源：
[8]贾云鹏：《一张“转开保函”创新破解中泰铁路融资难题》，载新华丝路，2025年11月17日。
[1] 参见新华丝路：《一张 “转开保函” 创新破解中泰铁路融资难题》，https://www.imsilkroad.com/news/p/800380.html，2025-11-17，最后访问 2026-02-09。
[2] 参见最高人民法院指导案例109号：安徽省外经建设(集团)有限公司诉东方置业房地产有限公司保函欺诈纠纷案，(2017)最高法民再134号。